At Nectar, we spend a lot of time staying up to date on the best research showing the amazing strides in the field of neuroscience and the effectiveness of cognitive training. We’ve collected some studies below. You’ll find a link to the original study along with a summary in case you’re in a hurry.
Discoveries in neuroscience are frequent. And we’re always finding more. Contact us and we’ll point you toward even more resources explaining the mind-blowing potential of cognitive training and the bright future of neuroscience.
At Nectar, we spend a lot of time staying up to date on the best research showing the amazing strides in the field of neuroscience and the effectiveness of cognitive training. We’ve collected some studies below. You’ll find a link to the original study along with a summary in case you’re in a hurry.
Discoveries in neuroscience are frequent. And we’re always finding more. Contact us and we’ll point you toward even more resources explaining the mind-blowing potential of cognitive training and the bright future of neuroscience.
1996
Summary of Findings:
Researchers review the literature on neuroplasticity and neurorehabilitation and examine the effect of practice on related areas of the brain. The researchers reviewed a study examining an object-retrieval task completed by animal specimens where practice resulted in significant behavioral performance improvements and cortical changes in the brain. Researchers extrapolate these observations to discuss language impairments in children. Brains with and without language impairments illustrate a “functional-self-creation plasticity process” where the structural differences that create language impairments are reinforced through further “practice” of that alternative method of language processing. Researchers posit that language impairments are likely caused by an early childhood issue that impacted the brain’s ability to perceive sound.
Limitations:
This article discusses on an initial study that was performed with non-human subjects.
Structural Brain Alterations following 5 Days of Intervention: Dynamic Aspects of Neuroplasticity
2006
Summary of Findings:
Changes to cortical plasticity, the neural connections in the brain, can occur as early as 5 days from the start of a cognitive intervention. As such, cortical plasticity is likely a “a fast adjusting neuronal system” and not a “slow evolving mechanism.”
Limitations:
This study was conducted with adult participants.
Musical Training Shapes Structural Brain Development
Krista L. Hyde, Jason Lerch, Andrea Norton, Marie Forgeard, Ellen Winner, Alan C. Evans and Gottfried Schlaug
2009
Summary of Findings:
After 15 months of musical training in early childhood, researchers observed structural brain changes in study participants, indicating the brain’s capacity to respond to environmental demands and training. By using long-term instrumental music training, researchers demonstrated that the structural changes in the brain corresponded with behavioral changes—improved scoring on a variety of behavioral tests, including fine motor skills, melodic and rhythmic discrimination, and verbal IQ.
Limitations:
This study had a small sample size (15 in the experimental group, 16 in the control).
1996
Summary of Findings:
Researchers review the literature on neuroplasticity and neurorehabilitation and examine the effect of practice on related areas of the brain. The researchers reviewed a study examining an object-retrieval task completed by animal specimens where practice resulted in significant behavioral performance improvements and cortical changes in the brain. Researchers extrapolate these observations to discuss language impairments in children. Brains with and without language impairments illustrate a “functional-self-creation plasticity process” where the structural differences that create language impairments are reinforced through further “practice” of that alternative method of language processing. Researchers posit that language impairments are likely caused by an early childhood issue that impacted the brain’s ability to perceive sound.
Limitations:
This article discusses on an initial study that was performed with non-human subjects.
Structural Brain Alterations following 5 Days of Intervention: Dynamic Aspects of Neuroplasticity
2006
Summary of Findings:
Changes to cortical plasticity, the neural connections in the brain, can occur as early as 5 days from the start of a cognitive intervention. As such, cortical plasticity is likely a “a fast adjusting neuronal system” and not a “slow evolving mechanism.”
Limitations:
This study was conducted with adult participants.
Musical Training Shapes Structural Brain Development
Krista L. Hyde, Jason Lerch, Andrea Norton, Marie Forgeard, Ellen Winner, Alan C. Evans and Gottfried Schlaug
2009
Summary of Findings:
After 15 months of musical training in early childhood, researchers observed structural brain changes in study participants, indicating the brain’s capacity to respond to environmental demands and training. By using long-term instrumental music training, researchers demonstrated that the structural changes in the brain corresponded with behavioral changes—improved scoring on a variety of behavioral tests, including fine motor skills, melodic and rhythmic discrimination, and verbal IQ.
Limitations:
This study had a small sample size (15 in the experimental group, 16 in the control).
Transfer of a Speed of Processing Intervention to Near and Far Cognitive Functions
Jerri D. Edwards, Karlene Bell, Virginia G. Wadley
2002
Summary of Findings:
Participants completed pre- and post-training assessments to determine the impact of regular completion of multiple processing speed exercises. Members of the training group grew in multiple measures of processing speed as indicated by post-training testing.
Limitations:
The amount of growth in the training group was less than previous studies. Transfer to certain untrained tasks did not occur.
Elise Temple, Gayle K. Deutsch, Russell A. Poldrack, Steven L. Miller, Paula Tallal, Michael M. Merzenich, and John D.E. Gabrieli
2003
Summary of Findings:
Researchers completed fMRI on 20 children with dyslexia. Imaging revealed a deficit in the mechanisms related to phonological processing. After completion of a training regimen focused on auditory processing and oral language, brain activity of the dyslexic children increased in regions activated in typical-reading children. The study suggests that improving language-processing abilities equates to improved reading and increased functioning in phonological processing regions of the brain.
Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity-based training program
Henry W. Mahncke, Bonnie B. Connor, Jed Appelman, Omar N. Ahsanuddin, Joseph L. Hardy, Richard A. Wood, Nicholas M. Joyce, Tania Boniske, Sharona M. Atkins, Michael M. Merzenich
2006
Summary of Findings:
Adults who completed an intensive “plasticity-engaging” training showed changed in memory function as compared to a control group that completed no training.
2007
Summary of Findings:
Considering that dyslexia may relate to difficulties processing auditory information, researchers examined children with dyslexia using fMRI. Imaging showed a difference in response between the children with dyslexia and typical-reading children. After eight weeks of auditory processing, phonological, and linguistic training, children demonstrated improvements in language and reading skills, and imaging showed increased activation in related brain sites.
Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory
Susanne M. Jaeggi, Martin Buschkuehl, John Jonides, Walter J. Perrig
2008
Summary of Findings:
Researchers found that training subjects on a demanding working memory task created transfer to fluid intelligence—our ability to reason and solve new problems independent of past exposure. The study concludes that gains in intelligence are dependent upon the “dosage” of training: the greater the amount of training, the higher the gains.
Glenn E. Smith, PhD, Patricia Housen, PhD, Kristine Yaffe, MD, Ronald Ruff, PhD, Robert F. Kennison, PhD, Henry W. Mahncke, PhD, Elizabeth M. Zelinski, PhD
2009
Summary of Findings:
The experimental group completed 40 hours of work with a computerized cognitive training program. The participants demonstrated significantly greater improvement in auditory memory and attention in generalized measures over a control group that completed a general program of cognitive stimulation.
Training and plasticity of working memory
2010
Summary of Findings:
Examining Working Memory and linking deficits in WM to a variety of conditions (including TBI and ADHD), this study used a computerized training program for WM tasks for 30-40 mins per day, 5 days per week for 5 weeks. The training was adjusted based on subject skill to increase the number of items the subject had to recall. At the end of the training, subjects demonstrated improvement in non-trained WM tasks.
Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training
Susanne M. Jaeggi, Martin Buschkuehl, John Jonides, and Priti Shah
2011
Summary of Findings:
Participants demonstrated significant improvement on a trained working memory task after only 19 training sessions as compared to a control group that indicated no significant improvement. The study suggests that higher gains during cognitive training resulted in higher gains in fluid intelligence, as illustrated by a comparison between pre- and post-training testing results. These researchers assert that cognitive training does work but more time is required to determine methods for creating the greatest transfer effect.
Rui Nouchi, Yasuyuki Taki, Hikaru Takeuchi, Hiroshi Hashizume, Yuko Akitsuki, Yayoi Shigemune, Atsushi Sekiguchi, Yuka Kotozaki, Takashi Tsukiura, Yukihito Yomogida, Ryuta Kawashima
2012
Summary of Findings:
Elderly subjects completed 4 weeks of a computerized brain training program. Participants demonstrated improved executive functions and processing speed. These results were examined following the short-term training. Long-term effects and impact on everyday functioning were untested.
Limitations:
The sample size for this study was small, in addition to the limited time frame in which both training and measurements occurred.
Frederic D. Wolinsky, Mark W. Vander Web, M. Bryant Howren, Michael P. Jones, Megan M. Dotson
2013
Summary of Findings:
Participants completed on-site and at-home visual speed of processing training using computerized intervention for only 10 hours. Subjects demonstrated stabilization or improvement in several cognitive function tests post-training.
Limitations:
Participants in this study were over the age of 50. The amount of training was limited. The study looked only at short-term impact.
Effect of working memory training on working memory, arithmetic and following instructions
2014
Summary of Findings:
Children, aged 7-15, completed 5 weeks of working memory training. While training, participants were tested multiple times for working memory, following instructions, and arithmetic. Compared to a control group who also completed the testing, the training group improved more than the control group on all three tasks.
Catherin M. Mewborn, Cutter A. Lindbergh, L. Stephen Miller
2017
Summary of Findings:
In analyzing the results of 97 studies that conducted interventions with focuses on both single cognitive domains and multi-domain training, researchers found improvement in cognitive functioning in older adults. Interventions for working memory, processing speed, and multiple domains demonstrated improved cognition. There were also significant gains for non-trained outcomes.
Limitations:
This meta-analysis only reviewed studies with participants of 60+ years of age.
Rachel C. Weber, Ronan Denyer, Negin Motamed Yeganeh, Rachel Maja, Meagan Murphy, Stephanie Martin, Larissa Chiu, Veronique Nguy, Katherine White & Lara Boyd
2019
Summary of Findings:
Both cognitive and academic skills improved after the completion of one year of sessions in the Arrowsmith cognitive intervention program. First-year participants in the Arrowsmith Programme completed 40 weeks of cognitive intervention in a school-day setting, equating to approximately 200 sessions. While Arrowsmith students have histories of learning challenges, several study participants exceeded expectations for academic baseline performance, establishing a range of cognitive abilities across study members. As measured by pre- and post-program cognitive testing and fMRI imaging, this study indicates that the Arrowsmith cognitive intervention led to growth for the following cognitive abilities: learning, long-term memory, verbal fluency, inductive reasoning, processing speed, and “vigilance” (attention). Additionally, researchers found that “a significant, moderate multivariate effect was observed, indicating overall academic skill improvement across participants.”
Limitations:
This study did not include a control group, and the overall number of participants was small at 29.
Transfer of a Speed of Processing Intervention to Near and Far Cognitive Functions
Jerri D. Edwards, Karlene Bell, Virginia G. Wadley
2002
Summary of Findings:
Participants completed pre- and post-training assessments to determine the impact of regular completion of multiple processing speed exercises. Members of the training group grew in multiple measures of processing speed as indicated by post-training testing.
Limitations:
The amount of growth in the training group was less than previous studies. Transfer to certain untrained tasks did not occur.
Elise Temple, Gayle K. Deutsch, Russell A. Poldrack, Steven L. Miller, Paula Tallal, Michael M. Merzenich, and John D.E. Gabrieli
2003
Summary of Findings:
Researchers completed fMRI on 20 children with dyslexia. Imaging revealed a deficit in the mechanisms related to phonological processing. After completion of a training regimen focused on auditory processing and oral language, brain activity of the dyslexic children increased in regions activated in typical-reading children. The study suggests that improving language-processing abilities equates to improved reading and increased functioning in phonological processing regions of the brain.
Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity-based training program
Henry W. Mahncke, Bonnie B. Connor, Jed Appelman, Omar N. Ahsanuddin, Joseph L. Hardy, Richard A. Wood, Nicholas M. Joyce, Tania Boniske, Sharona M. Atkins, Michael M. Merzenich
2006
Summary of Findings:
Adults who completed an intensive “plasticity-engaging” training showed changed in memory function as compared to a control group that completed no training.
2007
Summary of Findings:
Considering that dyslexia may relate to difficulties processing auditory information, researchers examined children with dyslexia using fMRI. Imaging showed a difference in response between the children with dyslexia and typical-reading children. After eight weeks of auditory processing, phonological, and linguistic training, children demonstrated improvements in language and reading skills, and imaging showed increased activation in related brain sites.
Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory
Susanne M. Jaeggi, Martin Buschkuehl, John Jonides, Walter J. Perrig
2008
Summary of Findings:
Researchers found that training subjects on a demanding working memory task created transfer to fluid intelligence—our ability to reason and solve new problems independent of past exposure. The study concludes that gains in intelligence are dependent upon the “dosage” of training: the greater the amount of training, the higher the gains.
Glenn E. Smith, PhD, Patricia Housen, PhD, Kristine Yaffe, MD, Ronald Ruff, PhD, Robert F. Kennison, PhD, Henry W. Mahncke, PhD, Elizabeth M. Zelinski, PhD
2009
Summary of Findings:
The experimental group completed 40 hours of work with a computerized cognitive training program. The participants demonstrated significantly greater improvement in auditory memory and attention in generalized measures over a control group that completed a general program of cognitive stimulation.
Training and plasticity of working memory
2010
Summary of Findings:
Examining Working Memory and linking deficits in WM to a variety of conditions (including TBI and ADHD), this study used a computerized training program for WM tasks for 30-40 mins per day, 5 days per week for 5 weeks. The training was adjusted based on subject skill to increase the number of items the subject had to recall. At the end of the training, subjects demonstrated improvement in non-trained WM tasks.
Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training
Susanne M. Jaeggi, Martin Buschkuehl, John Jonides, and Priti Shah
2011
Summary of Findings:
Participants demonstrated significant improvement on a trained working memory task after only 19 training sessions as compared to a control group that indicated no significant improvement. The study suggests that higher gains during cognitive training resulted in higher gains in fluid intelligence, as illustrated by a comparison between pre- and post-training testing results. These researchers assert that cognitive training does work but more time is required to determine methods for creating the greatest transfer effect.
Rui Nouchi, Yasuyuki Taki, Hikaru Takeuchi, Hiroshi Hashizume, Yuko Akitsuki, Yayoi Shigemune, Atsushi Sekiguchi, Yuka Kotozaki, Takashi Tsukiura, Yukihito Yomogida, Ryuta Kawashima
2012
Summary of Findings:
Elderly subjects completed 4 weeks of a computerized brain training program. Participants demonstrated improved executive functions and processing speed. These results were examined following the short-term training. Long-term effects and impact on everyday functioning were untested.
Limitations:
The sample size for this study was small, in addition to the limited time frame in which both training and measurements occurred.
Frederic D. Wolinsky, Mark W. Vander Web, M. Bryant Howren, Michael P. Jones, Megan M. Dotson
2013
Summary of Findings:
Participants completed on-site and at-home visual speed of processing training using computerized intervention for only 10 hours. Subjects demonstrated stabilization or improvement in several cognitive function tests post-training.
Limitations:
Participants in this study were over the age of 50. The amount of training was limited. The study looked only at short-term impact.
Effect of working memory training on working memory, arithmetic and following instructions
2014
Summary of Findings:
Children, aged 7-15, completed 5 weeks of working memory training. While training, participants were tested multiple times for working memory, following instructions, and arithmetic. Compared to a control group who also completed the testing, the training group improved more than the control group on all three tasks.
Catherin M. Mewborn, Cutter A. Lindbergh, L. Stephen Miller
2017
Summary of Findings:
In analyzing the results of 97 studies that conducted interventions with focuses on both single cognitive domains and multi-domain training, researchers found improvement in cognitive functioning in older adults. Interventions for working memory, processing speed, and multiple domains demonstrated improved cognition. There were also significant gains for non-trained outcomes.
Limitations:
This meta-analysis only reviewed studies with participants of 60+ years of age.
Rachel C. Weber, Ronan Denyer, Negin Motamed Yeganeh, Rachel Maja, Meagan Murphy, Stephanie Martin, Larissa Chiu, Veronique Nguy, Katherine White & Lara Boyd
2019
Summary of Findings:
Both cognitive and academic skills improved after the completion of one year of sessions in the Arrowsmith cognitive intervention program. First-year participants in the Arrowsmith Programme completed 40 weeks of cognitive intervention in a school-day setting, equating to approximately 200 sessions. While Arrowsmith students have histories of learning challenges, several study participants exceeded expectations for academic baseline performance, establishing a range of cognitive abilities across study members. As measured by pre- and post-program cognitive testing and fMRI imaging, this study indicates that the Arrowsmith cognitive intervention led to growth for the following cognitive abilities: learning, long-term memory, verbal fluency, inductive reasoning, processing speed, and “vigilance” (attention). Additionally, researchers found that “a significant, moderate multivariate effect was observed, indicating overall academic skill improvement across participants.”
Limitations:
This study did not include a control group, and the overall number of participants was small at 29.
